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In Situ Toxicity Identification Evaluation (iTIE)

Debra Tabron — Tue, 17 Mar 2026 15:46:04 GMT

Austin Crane

Debra Tabron — Tue, 17 Mar 2026 15:44:25 GMT

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-|[[Alternative Endpoints]]||[[Elisabeth Hawley |Hawley, Elisabeth]]||management of complex sites||
+|[[Alternative Endpoints]]||[[Elisabeth Hawley |Hawley, Elisabeth]]||management of complex sites
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 |[[Thermal Remediation]]||[[Dr. Gorm Heron |Heron, Gorm, Ph.D.]]||thermal remediation, in situ thermal
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 |[[Thermal Conduction Heating for Treatment of PFAS-Impacted Soil]]||[[Dr. Gorm Heron |Heron, Gorm, Ph.D.]]||thermal remediation, PFAS
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 |[[Munitions Constituents- TREECS™ Fate and Risk Modeling|Munitions Constituents - TREECS™ Fate and Risk Modeling]]||[[Dr. Billy E. Johnson |Johnson, Billy, Ph.D.]]||munitions constituents fate and transport modeling, TREECS
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 |[[Andrew Kirkman|Kirkman, Andrew]]
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 |[[Perchlorate]]||[[Thomas Krug |Krug, Thomas]]||perchlorate
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 |[[Transition of Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) Fire Suppression Infrastructure Impacted by Per and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)]]
 |[[Dr. Johnsie Ray Lang|Lang, Johnsie Ray, Ph.D.]]||PFAS
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 |[[Direct Push Logging]]||[[Wesley McCall, M.S., P.G. |McCall, Wesley, M.S., P.G.]]||direct push logging, Cone Penetration Testing, CPT, Electrical Conductivity, EC, Hydraulic Profiling Tool, HPT,<br>Membrane Interface Probe, MIP, Optical Imaging Profiler, OIP
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 |[[Remediation Performance Assessment at Chlorinated Solvent Sites]]||[[Travis McGuire|McGuire, Travis]]||multi-site studies
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 |[[Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) - Data Variability]]||[[Dr. Thomas McHugh |McHugh, Thomas, Ph.D.]]||data variability (in regards to LTM), LTM evaluation
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+|[[Munitions Constituents - Abiotic Reduction]]||[[Dr. Jimmy Murillo-Gelvez |Murillo-Gelvez, Jimmy, Ph.D.]] ||
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 |[[Natural Source Zone Depletion (NSZD)]]||[[Tom Palaia |Palaia, Tom]]||natural source zone depletion, NSZD
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-|[[Munitions Constituents - Dissolution]]||[[Dr. Susan Taylor |Taylor, Susan, Ph.D.]]||explosive(s), dissolution,
+|[[Munitions Constituents - Dissolution]]||[[Dr. Susan Taylor |Taylor, Susan, Ph.D.]]||explosive(s), dissolution
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 |[[PFAS Treatment by Electrical Discharge Plasma]]
 |[[Dr. Selma Mededovic Thagard|Thagard, Selma Mededovic, Ph.D.]]
 |PFAS
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 |[[Chemical Reduction (In Situ - ISCR)]]||[[Dr. Paul Tratnyek |Tratnyek, Paul, Ph.D.]]||In Situ Chemical Reduction, ISCR
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 |PFAS destruction
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 |[[Hydrogeophysical Methods for Characterization and Monitoring of Groundwater-Surface Water Exchanges]]
 |[[Dr. Lee Slater|Slater, Lee, Ph.D.]]
-|geophysics, hydrogeophysical methods,
+|geophysics, hydrogeophysical methods
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 |[[Hydrothermal Alkaline Treatment (HALT)]]
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 |[[Dr. John F. Stults|Stults, Dr. John]]
 |PFAS, vadose zone, lysimeter, field investigation
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 |[[PFAS Destruction by Ultraviolet/Sulfite Treatment]]||[[Dr. Yida Fang |Fang, Yida, Ph.D.]]||PFAS destruction
 |}

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:55, 6 April 2026
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−	~~==Related Articles==~~
−	~~{\| style="width:100%; vertical-align:top; "~~
−	\|
−	* [[Climate Change Primer]]

−	\|}
−
−	~~==Additional Documents==~~
−
−
−	~~==See Also==~~

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:54, 6 April 2026
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−	Climate change in the present context refers to the changes in climate that have already occurred, are ongoing, and can be projected from the recent past (post-industrialization, circa 1850) to forecast the near future. Average global near-surface air temperature and global mean sea level have steadily increased over the past 100 years. A Swedish Chemist, [[Wikipedia:Svante Arrhenius \| Svante Arrhenius]] in 1896 first predicted from basic physical chemical principles that increasing the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere would lead to an increase in the average surface temperature on earth<ref>Arrhenius S., 1896. On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 5, vol. 41, pp. 237–276.[//www.enviro.wiki/images/9/91/1896-Arrhenius._On_the_Influence_of_Carbonic_Acid.....pdf Report.pdf]</ref>. Now known as the [[Wikipedia:Greenhouse effect \| greenhouse effect]], this correlation between atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> and surface temperature was subsequently established using a large number of observational studies and numerical models during the past 100 years<ref>Archer, D.A. and Pierrehumbert, R.T., 2011. The Warming Papers: The Scientiﬁc Foundation for the Climate Change Forecast. ISBN 978-1-4051-9616-1/978-1-4051-9617-8</ref>. The numerical models representing the energy balance of the earth, known as global climate models, or earth system models when they are also used to simulate the carbon cycle, have improved with time to represent phenomena observed in the atmosphere, oceans and land. Projections of climate change are then generated using these models along with estimates of [[Wikipedia:Greenhouse gas \| greenhouse gas (GHG)]] levels in the atmosphere for a variety of scenarios (fossil-fuel use, changes to alternative energy sources, etc.). Under scenario RCP8.5 (business as usual) average global temperature is projected to rise ~ 4°C, and global mean sea level is projected to rise 0.6 to 0.8 meters by the year 2100.
−	~~<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>~~

−	~~'''Related Article(s)''':~~
−
−	*[[Climate Change Effects on Wildlife]]
−	*[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
−	*[[Infrastructure Resilience]]
−	*[[Predicting Species Responses to Climate Change with Population Models]]
−	*[https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php?title=Restoration_of_Ecological_Function_in_Terrestrial_Systems_Impacted_by_Invasive_Species Restoration of Ecological Function in Terrestrial Systems Impacted by Invasive Species]
−
−
−	~~'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Rao Kotamarthi]]~~
−
−
−	~~'''Key Resource(s)''':~~
−
−	*[https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/ The Fourth National Climate Assessment]<ref name="USGCRP2018">USGCRP, 2018. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II (Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)). U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, 1515 pp. [https://doi.org/10.7930/nca4.2018 doi: 10.7930/NCA4.2018] free pdf download: [https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/downloads/NCA4_2018_FullReport.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>
−	*[https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/ The International Panel on Climate Change Assessment Report 5]<ref name="IPCC2014B">IPCC, 2014b. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)). IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/e/e8/2014b-IPCC-Climate_Change_Synthesis_rReport-Fifth_Assessment.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>
−
−	~~==Introduction==~~
−	[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig1.png\|thumb\|left\|Figure 1. Global surface temperature anomalies for the past 100+ years compared to the 1961-1990 average. Source: [https://www.climatecentral.org/gallery/graphics/global-surface-temperatures "Global Surface Temperature Anomalies".] ]]
−	Climate change in the present context refers to the changes in climate that have already occurred, are ongoing, and can be projected from the recent past (post-industrialization, circa 1850) to forecast the near future. The earth has enjoyed a relatively stable climate for the past 10,000 years, from the beginning of a geological epoch known as the [[Wikipedia:Holocene \| Holocene]] which started at the end of the last glacial period. However, the earth’s global average near-surface air temperature has seen a steady increase over the past 100 years (Figure 1) and is projected to continue to increase over the rest of the century.
−
−	Figure 1 shows global surface temperature anomalies for the past 100+ years as compared to the baseline of average temperature for the years 1961-1990. Each of the lines shown in Figure 1 is the temperature anomaly calculated using independent methods and datasets by the organizations listed in the figure. The climate system is complex, and there are many phenomena that cause the mean temperature to fluctuate over various time scales from annual to decadal as seen in the figure. Short to medium time scale changes are natural to the system, but the observed overarching increase is a trend spanning the longer time scale of the past 100 years.
−	[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig2.png\|left\|thumb\|Figure 2. Changes in global mean sea-level (GMSL) from 1880 to present. Source: [https://research.csiro.au/slrwavescoast/sea-level/ "Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) – 1880 to the end of 2014".]]]
−
−	~~==Sea Level Rise==~~
−	[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig3.png\|thumb\|Figure 3: Evolution of climate models over the past 50 years. Source: IPCC 2013.<ref name="IPCC2013"> IPCC, 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/58/2013-IPCC-Climate_Change-The_Physical_science_basis.pdf report.pdf]</ref>]]
−
−	A warming climate is expected to increase the sea level elevation across the planet. This change is expected to occur due to both thermal expansion of water (higher temperatures lead to expansion and cooler temperatures to contraction) and also the melting of ice sheets and glaciers. Figure 2 shows estimates of global mean sea-level (GMSL) rise calculated using data collected from tide gauges around the world. Starting in 1993, satellite telemetry data has been used as an additional data source for generating these estimates. An increase of 250mm (9.8 inches) since 1880 is estimated to have already occurred by 2019.
−
−	~~==Climate - Earth System Models==~~
−	The first global climate models were developed in the 1970s and were primarily focused on understanding the water and energy budget of the planet and the effects of greenhouse gases. Over the decades, these models have been modified and improved to represent phenomena in the atmosphere, oceans and land and are usually referred to as earth system models. Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of earth system models over the past 50 years. As described in the first IPCC assessment report (FAR)<ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1992. Climate Change: The IPCC 1990 and 1992 Assessments. 180 p. ISBN : 0-662-19821-2 [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/5e/1992-IPCC-Climate_Change_Assessment_Report.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>, these early models were primarily atmospheric with ocean surface represented in the models as a pool of water that exchanges moisture with the atmosphere (i.e. a swamp). By the second IPCC assessment report (SAR)<ref>IPCC, 1995. Climate Change 1995: IPCC Second Assessment Report. IPCC, 73p. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/8/81/1995-IPCC-2nd_Assessment_Report.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>, the models included oceans represented as slabs of water, sulfate aerosols (which are formed both from industrial and from volcanic activity), and also greenhouse gases. Sulfate aerosols cool the atmosphere and are important for calculating the energy budget of the atmosphere correctly. The third assessment report (TAR)<ref>IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Watson, R.T. ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK and New York USA. 409 p. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/e/ef/2001-IPCC-Climate_Change_Synthesis_Report_-_Third_Assessment.pdf Report.pdf]</ref> included dynamic oceans with overturning currents, surface hydrological phenomena (such as rivers), carbon cycle participants and various kinds of atmospheric aerosols in addition to sulfate. The fourth assessment report (AR4)<ref>IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)). IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104p. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/b/be/2007-IPCC-Climate_change_synthesis_report.pdf Report.pdf]</ref> models had a full complement of atmospheric chemistry, aerosols, dynamic vegetation, dynamic oceans, carbon cycle and atmosphere, and can be considered full earth system models, distinct from the simpler climate models of the past. These models keep evolving with more and finer details added to the various earth compartments (land, ocean and biosphere) and higher spatial resolution. The Climate/Earth System models under development have spatial resolutions ranging from 25km to 100km.
−
−	~~==Projecting Human Drivers of Climate Change==~~
−	[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig4.png\|thumb\|Figure 4: Projected concentration of CO<sub>2</sub> through the year 2100 for each RCP used in IPCC AR-5 assessment. Adapted from USGCRP 2017<ref name="USGCRP2017" />.]]
−	~~[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig5.png\|thumb\|left\|Figure 5: (a) Global average near-surface air temperature and (b) mean sea level rise projections<ref name="IPCC2014B" />.]]~~
−	Climate change projections depend on the amount of carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and other greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. However, the amount of GHG released depends on a wide variety of socio-economic factors including population growth, economic activity, the amount and type of fossil-fuels used, and how humans respond to changing climate. This human dimension adds the largest uncertainty to the projections of future climate change.
−
−	To account for the uncertainty in human activity, scientists have developed a variety of scenarios which result in Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) for GHG, ranging from highly attenuated carbon emission scenarios to business as usual. Figure 4 shows the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> over time for the four most widely used [https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/ddc/ar5_scenario_process/RCPs.html RCP Scenarios (RCPS)]. The number at the end of the RCP (e.g. RCP8.5) represents the warming in Watts per square meter (W/m<sup>2</sup>) averaged across the planet at the end of this century. For RCP8.5, CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations are projected to more than double by 2100. Aerosols, micron sized particles in the atmosphere often formed by fossil fuel use, also play a key role in the earth’s energy balance. It is expected that if emission control strategies for GHGs are adopted, the amount of these particles will also decrease in the future. Changing the ways land is used and the ensuing changes in land cover, for example from forest to agriculture, are other significant human drivers of climate change.<onlyinclude> Deforestation of the tropical regions, conversion of more land to agriculture, and urbanization are all expected to increase </onlyinclude>through the end of the century <onlyinclude>under most of the scenarios.</onlyinclude>
−
−	~~==Model Uncertainty==~~
−	[[File:Kotamarthi1w2Fig6.png\|thumb\|Figure 6: Projected near surface air temperature changes over North America under various emission scenarios for the middle and the end of the 21st century<ref name="USGCRP2017" />. ]]
−	In addition to uncertainty about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, climate model projections have uncertainties related to the representation of physical, chemical and biological phenomena in the models. Some of these processes are either not well understood or occur at spatial and time scales that are not well resolved by the current generation of climate models. This type of uncertainty is referred to as model uncertainty. With increasing model sophistication and computational power, this model uncertainty is expected to decrease over time<ref>Hawkins, E. and Sutton, R., 2009. The potential to narrow uncertainty in regional climate predictions. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 90(8), pp.1095-1108. [https://doi.org/10.1175/2009BAMS2607.1 doi: 10.1175/2009BAMS2607.1] free download: [https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/2009BAMS2607.1 Article]</ref>. Climate models handle uncertainties in how the underlying physical, chemical and biological processes are represented in the model by using a range of input parameters and noting the range of output values that result. The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project [https://www.wcrp-climate.org/wgcm-cmip (CMIP)] conducted such calculations using a standard experimental design and model criteria selected by a group of experts. The model output was compared to output from other models, and has been archived for further analysis by the worldwide scientific community<ref>Taylor, K.E., R.J. Stouffer, G.A. Meehl, 2012. An Overview Of CMIP5 and The Experiment Design. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 93, pp. 485-498.[//www.enviro.wiki/images/8/8e/2012-Taylor-An_overview_of_CMIP5_and_the_experiment_design.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>. The next version of this data collection and analysis effort, [https://www.wcrp-climate.org/wgcm-cmip CMIP6,] is currently underway<ref>Eyring, V., Bony, S., Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Stevens, B., Stouffer, R. J., and Taylor, K. E. , 2016. Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1937–1958. doi:10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016 [//www.enviro.wiki/images/3/3f/2016-Eyring-Overview_of_the_Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project_Phase_6.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>.
−
−	~~==Climate Change Projections==~~
−	The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change [https://www.ipcc.ch/about/ (IPCC)] has developed climate projections for each of the RCP scenarios discussed above<ref name="IPCC2014B" />. Figure 5 shows projected global average near-surface air temperature and mean sea level rise for the years 2000 to 2100. Each color represents the projections based on a particular greenhouse gas emission scenario. The shading represents the range in model projections associated with different models and with the ways the underlying physical, chemical and biological processes are represented in these models. An average global temperature rise of approximately of 4°C is projected under RCP8.5<ref>Bjornas, C., 2015. A Guide to Representative Concentration Pathways. Center for International Climate Research (CICERO), Oslo, Norway. [https://cicero.oslo.no/en/posts/news/a-guide-to-representative-concentration-pathways Website] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/ae/Bjornas_2015_A_guide_to_RCPs.pdf Report.pdf]</ref><ref name="IPCC2014B" /><ref name="IPCC2013" />. Global mean sea level is projected to rise 0.6 to 0.8m by the year 2100. Other projections of sea-level rise estimate a range of 0.2 to 2m by 2100<ref>Parris, A., P. Bromirski, V. Burkett, D. Cayan, M. Culver, J. Hall, R. Horton, K. Knuuti, R. Moss, J. Obeysekera, A. Sallenger, and J. Weiss. 2012. Global sea level rise scenarios for the US National Climate Assessment. NOAA Tech Memo OAR CPO-1. 37 pp. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/8/89/2012-Parris-Global_sea_level_rise_scenarios_for_the_US_National_Climate_Assessment.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>. Recent observations of faster than predicted melting rates of ice sheets suggest that sea-level rise at the higher end of these estimates is more likely<ref>Bevis, M., Harig, C., Khan, S.A., Brown, A., Simons, F.J., Willis, M., Fettweis, X., Van Den Broeke, M.R., Madsen, F.B., Kendrick, E. and Caccamise, D.J., 2019. Accelerating changes in ice mass within Greenland, and the ice sheet’s sensitivity to atmospheric forcing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(6), pp.1934-1939. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1806562116 [//www.enviro.wiki/images/8/87/2019-Bevis-Accelerationg_changes_in_ice_mass_within_Greenland.pdf Report.pdf]</ref>.
−
−	The most recent inter-agency sponsored assessment of national climate change<ref name="USGCRP2017">U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), 2017. Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I (Wuebbles, D. J., D.W. Fahey, K.A. Hubbard, D.J. Dokkeb, B.C. Stewart and T.K. Maycock(eds)). U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, 470 pp. doi: 10.7930/J0J964J6. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/d/da/2017-USGCRP-Climate_Science_Special_Report_Fourth_National_Climate_Assessment%2C_Vol_1..pdf Report.pdf]</ref><ref name="USGCRP2018" /> for the U.S. has developed a detailed analysis of expected climate change (Figure 6). The main conclusions are that temperature increased by nearly 1°C over the contiguous United States (CONUS) over the past century, and that temperature increases are projected over most of the country in the coming decades. Lower precipitation over the southwest and an increased number of dry days between rain events over much of the country are projected. The models predict bigger changes in temperature and precipitation in Alaska compared to CONUS.<onlyinclude> Extremes in precipitation and temperature have increased and are expected to continue this trend over the next several decades. Impacts from changing climate to infrastructure</onlyinclude><ref>IPCC, 2014a. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1132 pp. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/3/3e/2014a-climate_change_-_Impacts%2C_Adaptation%2C_and_vulnerability._Part_A._global_and_Sectoral_Aspects.pdf Report.pdf]</ref><ref name="IPCC2014B" /><onlyinclude>, transportation</onlyinclude><ref>Schwartz, H. G., M. Meyer, C. J. Burbank, M. Kuby, C. Oster, J. Posey, E. J. Russo, and A. Rypinski, 2014. Ch. 5: Transportation. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 130-149 [https://doi.org/10.7930/j06q1v53 doi:10.7930/J06Q1V53] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/53/Schwartz_2014_NCA3_Chap_05_Transportation.pdf Report.pdf]</ref><onlyinclude>, and public health</onlyinclude><ref>National Institutes of Health (NIH), 2010. Fact Sheet – Health Effects of Climate Change. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/7/7c/2010-NIH-HealthEffectsOfClimateChange%28NIEHS%29.pdf Report.pdf]</ref><onlyinclude> have also been identified.</onlyinclude>
−
−	~~==References==~~
−
−	~~<references />~~
−
−	~~==See Also==~~
−
−	*[https://www.globalchange.gov/ U.S. Global Change Research Program]
−	*[https://www.ipcc.ch/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]
−	*[https://cpo.noaa.gov/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Climate Program Office (CPO)]

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:52, 6 April 2026
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−	Climate change affects both terrestrial<ref>Diffenbaugh, N. S. and Field, C. B., 2013. Changes in Ecologically Critical Terrestrial Climate Conditions. Science, 341(6145), pp. 486-492. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1237123 doi: 10.1126/science.1237123]</ref> and aquatic biomes<ref>Hoegh-Guldberg, O., and Bruno, J. F., 2010. The Impact of Climate Change on the World’s Marine Ecosystem. Science, 328(5985), pp. 1523-1528. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189930 doi: 10.1126/science.1189930]</ref> causing significant effects on ecosystem functions and biodiversity<ref name=":0">Bellard, C., Berteslsmeier, C., Leadley, P., Thuiller, W., and Courchamp, F., 2012. Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity. Ecological Letters, 15(4), pp. 365-377. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01736.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/a4/Bellard2012.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Climate change is affecting several key ecological processes and patterns that will have cascading impacts on wildlife and habitat<ref name=":1">Inkley, D. B., Anderson, M. G., Blaustein, A. R., Burkett, V. R., Felzer, B., Griffith, B., Price, J., and Root, T. L., 2004. Global Climate Change and Wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, MD, 26 pp. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/f/f1/Inkley2004.pdf Report pdf]</ref>. For example, sea-level rise, changes in the timing and duration of growing seasons, and changes in primary production are mainly driven by changes to global environmental variables (e.g., temperature and atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>). Climate-induced changes in the environment ultimately impact wildlife population abundance and distributions.
−	~~<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 2em 2em;">__TOC__</div>~~
−	~~'''Related Article(s):'''~~

−	*[[Climate Change Primer\|Climate Change]]
−	*[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
−	*[[Predicting Species Responses to Climate Change with Population Models]]
−	*[[Restoration of Ecological Function in Terrestrial Systems Impacted by Invasive Species]]
−
−	~~'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Breanna F. Powers]] and [[Dr. Julie A. Heath]]~~
−
−	~~'''Key Resource(s):'''~~
−
−	*[https://www.enviro.wiki/images/f/f1/Inkley2004.pdf Global climate change and wildlife in North America. Wildlife Society Technical Review 04-2]<ref name=":1" />
−	*[https://www.enviro.wiki/images/a/a4/Bellard2012.pdf Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity]<ref name=":0" />
−
−	~~==Introduction==~~
−	[[File:PowersFig1.png\|thumb\|900px\|left \| Figure 1. The predicted extinction risk (by percentage with 95% CIs) from climate change by different regions, colors represent a gradient from least to most extinction risks (green to red) based upon the number of relevant studies (n). Figure is from Urban (2015)<ref name=":2" />. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Any use of this figure requires the prior written permission of AAAS]]
−	[[File:PowersFig2.png\|thumb\|900px\|right\| Figure 2. Conceptual diagram showing how increased water temperatures and pCO₂ (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) affect the early life stages of fish. Where arrow direction indicated increasing rate ( ↑ ), decreasing rate ( ↓ ), or both directions depending on other environmental variables ( ↕️ ). Figure is from Pankhurst and Munday (2011)<ref name=":4" />.]]
−
−	Global climate change will affect ecosystem functions and cycles such as nutrient, hydraulic, and carbon cycles, changing aspects of environmental conditions such as temperature, soil moisture, and precipitation<ref>Davidson, E. A. and Janssens, I. A., 2006. Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, 440, pp. 165-173.[https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04514 doi: 10.1038/nature04514]</ref><ref>Melillo, J. M., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D. W., Moore, B., Vorosmarty, C. J., and Schloss, A. L., 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 363, pp. 234-240. [https://doi.org/10.1038/363234a0 doi: 10.1038/363234a0]</ref>. Wildlife species are adapted to their environments and changes to the environment and habitat conditions will mediate effects, either directly or indirectly, on species survival, fecundity and ultimately population persistence<ref>Alig, R. J., Technical Coordinator, 2011. Effects of Climate Change on Natural Resources and Communities: A Compendium of Briefing Papers. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report, [https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/37513 PNW-GTR-837], Portland, OR, 169p. [https://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-GTR-837 doi:10.2737/PNW-GTR-837] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/f/f2/Pnwgtr837.pdf Report pdf]</ref><ref>Acevedo-Whitehouse, K., and Duffus, A. L. J., 2009. Effects of environmental change on wildlife health. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3429-3438. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0128 doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0128]</ref><ref>Milligan, S. R., Holt, W. V., and Lloyd, R., 2009. Impacts of climate change and environmental factors on reproduction and development in wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1534), pp. 3313-3319. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0175 doi: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0175] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/ad/Milligan2009.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. The ability to adapt to changing habitat conditions as a result of climate change will differ across individual species and between populations. Some wildlife species may be more vulnerable to climate change than other species (Figure 1). Vulnerability is often linked to particular life-history traits (e.g., specialized habitat needs or limited dispersal abilities, see Pacifici et al. 2015P<ref>Pacifici, M., Foden, W., and Visconti, P., 2015. Assessing species vulnerability to climate change. Nature Climate Change 5, pp. 215-225. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2448 doi: 10.1038/nclimate2448]</ref> for a review on species vulnerability to climate change) or genetic composition. For example, grassland birds may be more vulnerable to changing climate than forest birds as forests can buffer change more so than grasslands<ref>Jarzyna, M. A., Zuckerberg, B., Finley, A. O., and Porter, W. F., 2016. Synergistic effects of climate change and land cover: grassland birds are more vulnerable to climate change. Landscape Ecology, 31(10), pp. 2275-2290. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0399-1 doi: 10.1007/s10980-016-0399-1]</ref>. Projected changes in the climate will generally have adverse effects of wildlife populations<ref>IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. R.T. Watson and the Core Writing Team (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, and New York, NY, USA, 398p. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/56/IPCC2001.pdf Report pdf]</ref>, though there are some species coping with climate change or benefitting from environmental change. For example, American kestrels (Falco sparverius) have shifted their breeding phenology to earlier in the year and may now raise two broods of young within a breeding season<ref>Smith, S. H., Steenhof, K., McClure, C. J. W., and Heath, J. A. 2017. Earlier nesting by generalist predatory bird is associated with human responses to climate change. Journal of Animal Ecology, 86(1), pp. 98-107. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12604 doi: 10.1111/1365-2656.12604] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/5/5d/Smith2017.pdf Article pdf]</ref>.
−
−	~~==The Influence of Climate Change on Wildlife and Habitats==~~
−	Climate change effects on wildlife include increases in disease and changes to pathogen distributions, patterns, and outbreaks in wildlife<ref>Bradley, B. A., Wilcove, D. S., and Oppenheimer, M., 2010. Climate change increases risk of plant invasion in the Eastern United States. Biological Invasions, 12, pp.1855-1872. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y doi: 10.1007/s10530-009-9597-y]</ref><ref>Cudmore, T. J., Björklund, N., Carroll, A. L., and Lindgren, B. S., 2010. Climate change and the range expansion of an aggressive bark beetle: evidence of higher beetle reproduction in naïve host tree populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47(5), pp. 1036-1043. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01848.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/b/b3/Cudmore2010.pdf Article pdf]</ref><ref>Price, S. J., Leung, W. T., Owen, C. J., Puschendorf, R., Sergeant, C., Cunningham, A. A., Balloux, F., Garner, T. W., and Nichols, R. A., 2019. Effects of historic and projected climate change on the range and impacts of an emerging wildlife disease. Global Change Biology, 25(8), pp. 2648-2660. [https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14651 doi: 10.1111/gcb.14651]</ref> changes in range distributions and shifts in latitudinal and elevational gradients; changes in phenology or the timing of life cycle events that may create phenological mismatches<ref>Renner, S. S., and Zohner, C. M., 2018. Climate Change and Phenological Mismatch in Trophic Interactions Among Plants, Insects, and Vertebrates. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 49, pp. 165-182. [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535 doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535]</ref> and extinction or population reduction<ref name=":2">Urban, M. C., 2015. Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science, 348(6234), pp. 571-573. [https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.aaa4984 doi: 10.1126/science.aaa4984] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/1/15/Urban2015.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. The effects of climate change across a species’ range will most likely not be homogenous, meaning it can vary substantially, especially if a species’ range spans across different continents as exhibited by many migratory birds.
−
−	Other changes in habitat include shifting vegetation (i.e., tree-lines are shifting to higher elevations), changes in nutrients in plants, earlier snowmelt and run-off, increase in invasive species, warming of streams and rivers, reduction or degradation of habitat (i.e., glacial melt), and an increase in large wildfires<ref>Barbero, R., Abatzoglou, J. T., Larkin, N. K., Kolden, C. A., and Stocks, B., 2015. Climate change presents increased potential for very large fires in the contiguous United States. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 24(7), pp. 892-899. [https://doi.org/10.1071/WF150830128 doi: 10.1071/WF150830128] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/0/08/Barbero2015.pdf Article pdf]</ref> and droughts<ref>Schlaepfer, D. R., Bradford, J. B., Lauenroth, W. K., Munson, S. M., Tietjen, B., Hall, S. A., Wilson, S. D., Duniway, M. C., Jia, G., Pyke, D. A., Lkhagva, A., and Jamiyansharav, K., 2017. Climate change reduces extent of temperate drylands and intensifies drought in deep soils. Nature Communications, 8, pp. 14196. [https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14196 doi: 10.1038/ncomms14196]</ref>.
−
−	Although climate change effects on wildlife often are linked to species-specific traits, there are general impacts associated with taxonomic groups<ref name=":1" />. For fish it can affect reproduction<ref name=":4">Pankhurst, N. W., and Munday, P. L., 2011. Effects of climate change on fish reproduction and early life history stages. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(9), pp. 1015-1026. [https://doi.org/10.1071/MF10269 doi: 10.1071/MF10269] [[Special:FilePath/Pankhurst2011.pdf\| Article pdf]]</ref>, growth, and recruitment<ref name=":3">Lynch, A. J., Myers, B. J. E., Chu, C., Eby, L. A., Falke, J. A., Kovach, R. P., Krabbenhoft, T. J., Kwak, T. J., Lyons, J., Paukert, C. P., and Whitney, J. E., 2016. Climate Change Effects on North American Inland Fish Populations and Assemblages. Fisheries, 41(7), pp. 346-361. [https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2016.1186016 doi: 10.1080/03632415.2016.1186016]</ref>(Figure 2). Cold-water fish such as inland North American species are highly affected with the warming of streams and rivers<ref name=":3" />. Amphibians are highly sensitive to their environment and changes in temperature and moisture can affect development, range, abundance, and phenology<ref>Blaustein, A.R., Walls, S.C., Bancroft, B.A., Lawler, J.J., Searle, C.L., and Gervasi, S.S., 2010. Direct and Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Amphibian Populations. Diversity, 2(2), pp. 281-313.[https://doi.org/10.3390/d2020281 doi: 10.3390/d2020281] [[Special:FilePath/Blaustein 2010.pdf\| Article pdf]]</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>Ficetola, G. F., and Maiorano, L., 2016. Contrasting effects of temperature and precipitation change on amphibian phenology, abundance and performance. Oecologia, 181(3), pp. 683-693. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3610-9 doi: 10.1007/s00442-016-3610-9]</ref>. In reptiles, climate change effects can alter thermoregulation patterns, affect female reproduction and in some species, change sex ratios with increasing temperature<ref name=":1" />. Furthermore, for many bird species the timing of migration and other phenological events are affected by climate change<ref>Crick, H. Q. P., 2004. The impact of climate change on birds. Ibis, 146(s1), pp. 48-56. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00327.x doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00327.x] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/c/c9/Crick2004.pdf Article pdf]</ref>. Range shifts, growth size, and survival are linked to climate change for mammals<ref name=":1" />. Arctic marine mammals are closely linked to sea ice dynamics and a changing climate will affect these dynamics<ref>Kovacs, K. M., Lydersen, C., Overland, J. E., and Moore, S. E., 2011. Impacts of changing sea-ice conditions on Arctic marine mammals. Marine Biodiversity, 41, pp. 81-194. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-010-0061-0 doi: 10.1007/s12526-010-0061-0]</ref>. Therefore, it is increasingly important for conservation and management plans to consider the effects of climate change on wildlife and habitat for the geographic location<ref>Mawdsley, J. R., O’Malley, R., and Ojima, D. S. 2009. A Review of Climate-Change Adaptations Strategies For Wildlife Management and Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Biology, 23(5), pp. 1080-1089. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01264.x doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01264.x]</ref>.
−
−	~~==References==~~
−	~~<references />~~
−
−	~~==See Also==~~

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 ** Editorial Policy|Editorial Policy
 ** https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSce_Y9wp_LE8OJtylUhtfuNORF8ssKxYe_xeyqTaXLDOSrC3g/viewform?usp=sf_link|FeedBack
-** https://www.serdp-estcp.org/|SERDP/ESTCP
+// ** https://www.serdp-estcp.org/|SERDP/ESTCP
 * Topic Categories
 ** Transport & Attenuation Processes|Transport & Attenuation Processes
 ** Characterization, Assessment & Monitoring|Characterization, Assessment & Monitoring
-** Climate Change Primer|Climate Change
+// ** Climate Change Primer|Climate Change
 ** Coastal and Estuarine Ecology|Coastal and Estuarine Ecology
 ** Contaminated Sediments - Introduction|Contaminated Sediments

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 <center><span style="font-size:350%"> <span style="color:#008566"> Welcome to '''ENVIRO'''</span> <span style="color:#762a87">'''Wiki'''</span></span></center>
 ENVIRO.wiki aims to connect users with the most current and credible science and engineering research into the design and implementation of environmental projects. Articles are written by nationally and internationally recognized experts who provide a concise summary of the current State-of-Practice and relevant research results. Many of these authors have written similar articles for SERDP-ESTCP as part of the existing monograph series or for other publications. All articles are reviewed by outside technical reviewers as described in the [[Editorial_Policy|editorial policy]]. Day to day administration is provided by [https://www.trccompanies.com/ TRC].
 ::::::{| id="mp-upper" style="margin:auto; width: 95%; margin-top:3px; border-spacing: 0px; "

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 *[[Climate Change Primer|Climate Change]]
 *[[Climate Change Effects on Wildlife]]
 '''Contributors''': Dr. Hugo Thierry, McKayla M. Spencer, Ann Marie Gawel, and Dr. Haldre Rogers
 '''Key Resources''':
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 ==Identifying the Impacts of Non-native Species on the Ecosystem==
 When a species has been identified in an ecosystem, it is essential to determine how it has impacted the stability, composition, and diversity of the ecosystem. This may be done by comparing changes over time, if data exist from prior to the invasion, or comparing across space if comparable areas exist nearby. Experiments that compare areas where the invasive is excluded to areas where it is present (aka ‘exclosure experiments’) may also shed light on how the system would operate in the absence of the invader.
 <onlyinclude>Invasive species may cause the decline or extirpation of native species that provide essential ecological functions in the ecosystem. For example, the [http://ky-caps.ca.uky.edu/hemlock-woolly-adelgid Hemlock Woolly Adelgid] (''Adelges tsugae''), an invasive insect from Asia, has led to the destruction of up to 80% of the hemlock trees in the Eastern United States, which then impacted overall forest composition. </onlyinclude>In Florida, the [[wikipedia:Python_molurus|burmese python]] (''Python molurus'') became a destructive invasive species in less than 20 years by causing severe declines in mammal populations through predation<ref>Hoyer, I.J., Blosser, E.M., Acevedo, C., Thompson, A.C., Reeves, L.E., and Burkett-Cadena, N.D., 2017. Mammal decline, linked to invasive Burmese python, shifts host use of vector mosquito towards reservoir hosts of a zoonotic disease. Biology Letters, 13(10):20170353.[https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2017.0353 doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0353] [//www.enviro.wiki/images/c/c2/Hoyer2017.pdf Article pdf]</ref>.

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 *[[Climate Change Primer|Climate Change]]
 *[[Climate Change Effects on Wildlife]]
 '''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. Brian Hudgens]]
 '''Key Resource(s):'''
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 ==See Also==
 *[https://climatetoolbox.org/ The Climate Toolbox: Web tools for visualizing past and projected climate and hydrology of the contiguous United States]
 *[//www.enviro.wiki/images/e/e7/RC-2511GuidanceDocument.pdf Web tools for riparian and aquatic population modeling]

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 *[[Climate Change Primer]]
 *[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
 '''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. John Hummel]] and [[Dr. Frederic Petit]]
 '''Key Resources(s):'''
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 ==References==
 <references />
 ==See Also==
 *U.S. Department of Defense, 2019.[//www.enviro.wiki/images/2/2f/DoD2019.PDF  Report on Effects of a Changing Climate to the Department of Defense]
 *Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 2017. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/3/37/NAVFACHandbook2017.pdf  Climate Change Planning Handbook Installation Adaptation and Resilience]
 *[https://www.serdp-estcp.org/Program-Areas/Resource-Conservation-and-Resiliency/Infrastructure-Resiliency/(language)/eng-US Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) and Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) – Infrastructure Resiliency]
 *U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012. [//www.enviro.wiki/images/a/af/CCAR2012.pdf  Climate Change Adaptation Roadmap]

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 |-
 | style="width:55%;" |<center><span style="font-size:175%; line-height: 0.2em; vertical-align:top;"><big><span style="color:#008566">Welcome to '''ENVIRO'''</span> <span style="color:#762a87">'''Wiki'''</span></big></span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-size:150%; color:#008566; line-height: 0.2em; vertical-align:top;"> Peer Reviewed.  Accessible.  Written By Experts</span></center>
-| style="width:40%;" |<center><span style="font-size:110%; vertical-align:top;"> ''Developed and brought to you by '' <br>[[File:MainLogo-serdp-estcp.png|link=https://www.serdp-estcp.org |frameless|center|350px]]</span>''<span style="font-size:140%; vertical-align:top;">Your Environmental Information Gateway</span>''
 |-
 |<span style="width:55%; line-height: 0.3em;"> The goal of ENVIRO Wiki is to make scientific and engineering research results more accessible to environmental professionals, facilitating the permitting, design and implementation of environmental projects.  Articles are written and edited by invited experts (see [[Contributors]]) to summarize current knowledge for the target audience on an array of topics, with cross-linked references to reports and technical literature. </span>
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 *[[Natural Attenuation in Source Zone and Groundwater Plume - Bemidji Crude Oil Spill |Natural Attenuation in Source Zone and Groundwater Plume&nbsp;-<br />Bemidji Crude Oil Spill]]
 *[[OPTically-based In-situ Characterization System (OPTICS)]]
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 <u>'''[[Contaminated Sediments - Introduction | Contaminated Sediments]]'''</u>
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 |[[Thermal Conduction Heating for Treatment of PFAS-Impacted Soil]]||[[Dr. Gorm Heron |Heron, Gorm, Ph.D.]]||thermal remediation, PFAS
-|-
+// |-
-|[[Predicting Species Responses to Climate Change with Population Models]]
+// |[[Predicting Species Responses to Climate Change with Population Models]]
-|[[Dr. Brian Hudgens|Hudgens, Brian, Ph.D.]]
+// |[[Dr. Brian Hudgens|Hudgens, Brian, Ph.D.]]
-|climate change
+// |climate change
-|-
+// |-
-|[[Infrastructure Resilience]]
+// |[[Infrastructure Resilience]]
-|[[Dr. John Hummel|Hummel, John, Ph.D.]]
+// |[[Dr. John Hummel|Hummel, John, Ph.D.]]
+// |
 |-
 |[[Munitions Constituents- TREECS™ Fate and Risk Modeling|Munitions Constituents - TREECS™ Fate and Risk Modeling]]||[[Dr. Billy E. Johnson |Johnson, Billy, Ph.D.]]||munitions constituents fate and transport modeling, TREECS
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+|
-|-
+// |-
-|[[Climate Change Primer]]
+// |[[Climate Change Primer]]
-|[[Dr. Rao Kotamarthi|Kotamarthi, Rao, Ph.D.]]
+// |[[Dr. Rao Kotamarthi|Kotamarthi, Rao, Ph.D.]]
+// |
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-|-
+// |-
-|[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
+// |[[Downscaled High Resolution Datasets for Climate Change Projections]]
-|[[Dr. Rao Kotamarthi|Kotamarthi, Rao, Ph.D.]]
+// |[[Dr. Rao Kotamarthi|Kotamarthi, Rao, Ph.D.]]
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+// |[[Climate Change Effects on Wildlife]]
-|[[Dr. Breanna F. Powers|Powers, Breanna, PhD.]]
+// |[[Dr. Breanna F. Powers|Powers, Breanna, PhD.]]
+// |
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-|-
+// |-
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+// |[[Restoration of Ecological Function in Terrestrial Systems Impacted by Invasive Species]]
-|Thierry, Hugo, Ph.D.
+// |Thierry, Hugo, Ph.D.
-|climate change, invasive species, restoration ecology
+// |climate change, invasive species, restoration ecology
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 |[[Chemical Reduction (In Situ - ISCR)]]||[[Dr. Paul Tratnyek |Tratnyek, Paul, Ph.D.]]||In Situ Chemical Reduction, ISCR

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−	'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. G. Allen Burton]] and Austin Crane	+	'''Contributor(s):''' [[Dr. G. Allen Burton]] and [[Austin Crane]]

	'''Key Resource(s):'''		'''Key Resource(s):'''

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	*[[In Situ Toxicity Identification Evaluation (iTIE)]]		*[[In Situ Toxicity Identification Evaluation (iTIE)]]

		+	__NOTOC__

−		+	[[Category: Contributors\|Crane]]
−	~~__NOTOC__~~